19. Zingaphi iindlela zokuxutywa kweesampulu zamanzi xa kusenziwa umlinganiselo we-BOD5?Ngawaphi amanyathelo okhuseleko okusebenza?
Xa ulinganisa i-BOD5, iindlela zokuhlanjululwa kweesampulu zamanzi zahlulwe zibe ziindidi ezimbini: indlela yokuhlambulula ngokubanzi kunye nendlela yokucoca ngokuthe ngqo.Indlela yokuhlanjululwa ngokubanzi idinga inani elikhulu lamanzi okucoca okanye ukuxutywa kwamanzi okuxutywa kwe-inoculation.
Indlela yokuhlanjululwa ngokubanzi kukongeza malunga ne-500mL yamanzi okuxutywa okanye i-inoculation dilution yamanzi kwi-1L okanye i-2L yesilinda esigqityiweyo, emva koko wongeze umthamo othile obaliweyo wesampulu yamanzi, ukongeza amanzi angakumbi okuxutywa okanye ukuxutywa kwamanzi kwisikali esipheleleyo, kwaye usebenzise Irabha ekupheleni ukuya Intonga yeglasi engqukuva ishukunyiswa ngokucothayo phezulu okanye phantsi phantsi komphezulu wamanzi.Ekugqibeleni, sebenzisa i-siphon ukwazisa isisombululo sesampula samanzi esixutywe ngokulinganayo kwibhotile yenkcubeko, ugcwalise ngokuphuphuma okuncinci, uvale ngokucophelela isivalo sebhotile, kwaye usitywine ngamanzi.Umlomo webhotile.Kwiisampuli zamanzi ezinomlinganiselo wesibini okanye wesithathu we-dilution, isisombululo esisele sixutywe singasetyenziswa.Emva kokubala, inani elithile lamanzi ahlanjululweyo okanye i-inoculated dilution yamanzi inokongezwa, ixutywe kwaye ifakwe kwibhotile yenkcubeko ngendlela efanayo.
Indlela yokuhlanjululwa ngokuthe ngqo kukwazisa kuqala malunga nesiqingatha somthamo wamanzi okuxutywa okanye i-inoculation dilution yamanzi kwibhotile yenkcubeko eyaziwayo nge-siphoning, kwaye emva koko utofe umthamo wesampulu yamanzi ekufuneka yongezwe kwibhotile nganye yenkcubeko ebalwa ngokusekelwe kwi-dilution. into ecaleni kodonga lwebhotile., emva koko ungenise amanzi e-dilution okanye i-inoculate dilution yamanzi kwi-bottleneck, uvale ngokucophelela isivalo sebhotile, kwaye uvale umlomo webhotile ngamanzi.
Xa usebenzisa indlela yokuhlanjululwa ngokuthe ngqo, ingqwalasela ekhethekileyo kufuneka ihlawulwe ukuba ingabazisi amanzi okucoca okanye ukugoba amanzi okuhlamba ngokukhawuleza ekupheleni.Ngexesha elifanayo, kuyimfuneko ukuhlolisisa imigaqo yokusebenza yokwazisa umthamo ofanelekileyo ukuphepha iimpazamo ezibangelwa ukuphuphuma ngokweqile.
Kungakhathaliseki ukuba yeyiphi indlela esetyenziswayo, xa uzisa isampuli yamanzi kwibhotile yenkcubeko, isenzo kufuneka sibe mnene ukuphepha amaqamza, ukunyibilika komoya emanzini okanye ukuphuma kweoksijini emanzini.Kwangaxeshanye, qiniseka ukuba ulumke xa uvala ibhotile ngokuqinileyo ukunqanda amaqamza omoya aseleyo ebhotileni, anokuthi achaphazele iziphumo zomlinganiso.Xa ibhotile yenkcubeko ikhuliswe kwi-incubator, isitywina samanzi kufuneka sihlolwe yonke imihla kwaye sizaliswe ngamanzi kwangexesha ukukhusela amanzi okutywinwa ukuba angabi ngumphunga kwaye avumele umoya ukuba ungene kwibhotile.Ukongeza, umthamo weebhotile ezimbini zenkcubeko ezisetyenziswe ngaphambi nangemva kweentsuku ezi-5 kufuneka zifane ukuze kuncitshiswe iimpazamo.
20. Ziziphi iingxaki ezinokuvela xa kusenziwa umlinganiselo weBOD5?
Xa i-BOD5 ilinganiswa kumanzi amdaka enkqubo yokucocwa kwelindle kunye ne-nitrification, kuba iqulethe iibhaktheriya ezininzi ze-nitrifying, iziphumo zokulinganisa ziquka imfuno ye-oksijini yezinto ezine-nitrogen ezifana ne-ammonia nitrogen.Xa kuyimfuneko ukwahlula imfuno ye-oksijini yezinto ze-carbonaceous kunye nemfuno ye-oksijini yezinto ze-nitrogen kwiisampulu zamanzi, indlela yokongeza i-nitrification inhibitors kumanzi e-dilution ingasetyenziselwa ukuphelisa i-nitrification ngexesha lenkqubo yokumisela i-BOD5.Ngokomzekelo, ukongeza i-10mg 2-chloro-6- (trichloromethyl) pyridine okanye i-10mg propenyl thiourea, njl.
I-BOD5/CODCr isondele kwi-1 okanye inkulu kuno-1, nto leyo ehlala ibonisa ukuba kukho impazamo kwinkqubo yovavanyo.Ikhonkco nganye yovavanyo kufuneka ihlaziywe, kwaye ingqalelo ekhethekileyo kufuneka ihlawulwe ukuba ingaba isampuli yamanzi ithathwa ngokulinganayo.Kungaba yinto eqhelekileyo ukuba i-BOD5/CODMn ibe kufutshane ne-1 okanye ide ibe nkulu kune-1, kuba iqondo le-oxidation yezinto eziphilayo kwiisampuli zamanzi nge-potassium permanganate lingaphantsi kakhulu kune-potassium dichromate.Ixabiso le-CODMn lesampulu yamanzi enye ngamanye amaxesha lingaphantsi kwexabiso le-CODCr.Ezininzi.
Xa kukho into eqhelekileyo yokuba i-dilution factor enkulu kunye nexabiso eliphezulu le-BOD5, isizathu ngokuqhelekileyo ukuba isampuli yamanzi iqulethe izinto ezivimbela ukukhula kunye nokuveliswa kwee-microorganisms.Xa i-dilution factor iphantsi, umlinganiselo wezinto ezithintelayo eziqulethwe kwisampulu yamanzi mkhulu, okwenza kube nzima ukuba ibhaktheriya yenze i-biodegradation esebenzayo, okukhokelela kwiziphumo eziphantsi zokulinganisa i-BOD5.Ngeli xesha, amacandelo athile okanye izizathu zezinto ezilwa ne-antibacterial kufuneka zifunyanwe, kwaye unyango olusebenzayo kufuneka lwenziwe ukuphelisa okanye ukufihla ngaphambi kokulinganisa.
Xa i-BOD5/CODCr iphantsi, njengangaphantsi kwe-0.2 okanye nangaphantsi kwe-0.1, ukuba isampulu yamanzi elinganisiweyo ngamanzi amdaka emizi-mveliso, inokuba kungenxa yokuba i-organic matter kwisampulu yamanzi inokonakala kwezinto eziphilayo.Nangona kunjalo, ukuba isampulu yamanzi elinganisiweyo yimfucuza yasezidolophini okanye ixutywe namanzi amdaka athile e-Industrial, eyinxalenye yelindle lasekhaya, akukhona nje ngokuba isampulu yamanzi iqulethe izinto eziyityhefu okanye iintsholongwane ezibulala iintsholongwane, kodwa ezona zizathu zixhaphake kakhulu zixabiso le-pH elingathathi hlangothi. kunye nobukho bentsalela yemichiza yokungunda.Ukuze ugweme iimpazamo, ngexesha lenkqubo yokulinganisa i-BOD5, ixabiso le-pH lesampula yamanzi kunye namanzi okuhlamba kufuneka lilungiswe kwi-7 kunye ne-7.2 ngokulandelanayo.Uhlolo lwesiqhelo kufuneka lwenziwe kwiisampuli zamanzi ezinokuqulatha ii-oxidants ezifana nentsalela yeklorini.
21. Zeziphi izikhombisi ezibonisa izondlo zezityalo kumanzi amdaka?
Izondlo zezityalo ziquka initrogen, iphosphorus kunye nezinye izinto ezifunekayo ekukhuleni nasekuphuhliseni izityalo.Ukutya okuphakathi kunokukhuthaza ukukhula kwezinto eziphilayo kunye ne-microorganisms.Izondlo ezigqithisileyo zezityalo ezingena kumzimba wamanzi ziya kubangela ukuba i-algae iphindaphindeke kumzimba wamanzi, okukhokelela kwinto ebizwa ngokuba yi-eutrophication, eya kuthi iqhube ngakumbi ukuwohloka komgangatho wamanzi, ichaphazele imveliso yokuloba kunye nokulimaza impilo yabantu.I-eutrophication enzima yamachibi angekho nzulu inokukhokelela ekudakaleni kwechibi kunye nokufa.
Ngexesha elifanayo, izondlo zezityalo ziyinxalenye ebalulekileyo yokukhula kunye nokuzala kwakhona kwe-microorganisms kwi-sludge esebenzayo, kwaye yinto ephambili enxulumene nokusebenza okuqhelekileyo kwenkqubo yonyango yebhayoloji.Ngoko ke, izikhombisi zezityalo zezityalo emanzini zisetyenziswa njengesalathisi esibalulekileyo solawulo kwimisebenzi eqhelekileyo yokucoca ugutyulo.
Iimpawu zomgangatho wamanzi ezibonisa izondlo zezityalo kugutyulo ikakhulu ziikhompawundi zenitrogen (ezifana nenitrogen ephilayo, i-ammonia nitrogen, i-nitrite nenitrate, njl. njl.) kunye neekhompawundi ze-phosphorus (ezifana ne-phosphorus iyonke, i-phosphate, njl.).Kwimisebenzi yokucocwa kogutyulo oluqhelekileyo, badla ngokuba yiMonitor ammonia nitrogen kunye nephosphate kumanzi angenayo naphumayo.Ngakolunye uhlangothi, kukugcina ukusebenza okuqhelekileyo kwonyango lwebhayoloji, kwaye kwelinye icala, kukufumanisa ukuba amanzi amdaka adibana nemigangatho yesizwe yokukhupha.
22.Ziziphi izikhombisi zomgangatho wamanzi wemixube yenitrogen esetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo?Zihlobene njani?
Izalathi zomgangatho wamanzi ezisetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo ezimele iikhompawundi zenitrogen emanzini ziquka initrogen epheleleyo, iKjeldahl nitrogen, i-ammonia nitrogen, i-nitrite nenitrate.
I-ammonia nitrogen yinitrogen ekhoyo kwimo ye-NH3 kunye ne-NH4+ emanzini.Linyathelo lokuqala lemveliso yokubola kwe-oxidative ye-organic nitrogen compounds kwaye luphawu longcoliseko lwamanzi.I-nitrogen ye-ammonia inokuxutywa kwi-nitrite (echazwe njenge-NO2-) phantsi kwesenzo sebhaktheriya ye-nitrite, kwaye i-nitrite inokuthi ifakwe kwi-nitrate (echazwe njenge-NO3-) phantsi kwesenzo sebhaktheriya ye-nitrate.I-Nitrate nayo inokuncitshiswa ibe yi-nitrite phantsi kwesenzo se-microorganisms kwindawo engena-oxygen.Xa i-nitrogen emanzini ikakhulu ikwimo ye-nitrate, ingabonisa ukuba umxholo we-nitrogen-equkethe izinto eziphilayo emanzini umncinci kakhulu kwaye umzimba wamanzi ufikelele ekuzihlambululeni.
Isixa senitrogen ye-organic kunye ne-ammonia nitrogen inokulinganiswa ngokusebenzisa indlela ye-Kjeldahl (GB 11891-89).Isiqulatho senitrogen kwiisampulu zamanzi ezilinganiswe ngendlela ye-Kjeldahl ikwabizwa ngokuba yi-Kjeldahl nitrogen, ngoko ke eyona nitrogen ixhaphakileyo eyaziwa ngokuba yi-Kjeldahl nitrogen yi-ammonia nitrogen.kunye nenitrogen ephilayo.Emva kokususa i-ammonia nitrogen kwisampuli yamanzi, emva koko ilinganiswa ngendlela ye-Kjeldahl.Ixabiso elilinganisiweyo yinitrogen ephilayo.Ukuba i-nitrogen ye-Kjeldahl kunye ne-ammonia nitrogen zilinganiswa ngokwahlukeneyo kwiisampuli zamanzi, umahluko kwakhona yinitrogen ephilayo.I-Kjeldahl nitrogen ingasetyenziswa njengesalathisi solawulo kumxholo we-nitrogen wamanzi angenayo ezixhobo zokucoca ugutyulo, kwaye ingasetyenziselwa njengesalathisi sokulawula ukutshatyalaliswa kwemvelo yamanzi endalo njengemilambo, amachibi kunye nolwandle.
Iyonke initrogen sisixa senitrogen ephilayo, i-ammonia nitrogen, initrogen yenitrite kunye nenitrojeni yenitrate emanzini, esisixa seKjeldahl nitrogen kunye netotali yenitrogen yenitrogen.Iyonke initrogen, initrogen yenitrite kunye nenitrogen yenitrate zonke zinokulinganiswa kusetyenziswa ispectrophotometry.Indlela yokuhlalutya ye-nitrite nitrogen, jonga i-GB7493-87, indlela yokuhlalutya i-nitrate ye-nitrate, jonga i-GB7480-87, kunye nendlela yohlalutyo lwe-nitrogen, jonga i-GB 11894- -89.Iyonke initrogen imele isixa seekhompawundi zenitrogen emanzini.Kuyisalathisi esibalulekileyo sokulawulwa kokungcola kwamanzi endalo kunye nepharamitha yokulawula ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokucocwa kwamanzi amdaka.
23. Ngawaphi amanyathelo okuthintela ukulinganisa i-ammonia nitrogen?
Iindlela ezixhaphakileyo zokumisela i-ammonia nitrogen ziindlela ze-colorimetric, ezizezi Nessler's reagent colorimetric method (GB 7479–87) kunye ne-salicylic acid-hypochlorite method (GB 7481–87).Iisampulu zamanzi zinokugcinwa ngokufakwa kweasidi nge-asidi yesulfuric exubileyo.Indlela ekhethekileyo kukusebenzisa i-asidi ye-sulfuric egxininisiweyo ukulungisa ixabiso le-pH lesampuli yamanzi phakathi kwe-1.5 kunye ne-2, kwaye igcinwe kwindawo ye-4oC.Ubuncinci bokujongwa koxinaniso lwe-Nessler reagent colorimetric method kunye ne-salicylic acid-hypochlorite method yi-0.05mg/L kunye ne-0.01mg/L (ibalwe kwi-N) ngokulandelelanayo.Xa ulinganisa iisampuli zamanzi kunye noxinzelelo olungaphezulu kwe-0.2mg / L Xa, indlela ye-volumetric (CJ / T75-1999) ingasetyenziswa.Ukuze ufumane iziphumo ezichanekileyo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba yeyiphi indlela yokuhlalutya esetyenzisiweyo, isampuli yamanzi kufuneka ihlanjululwe kwangaphambili xa ilinganisa i-ammonia nitrogen.
Ixabiso le-pH leesampuli zamanzi linempembelelo enkulu ekumiselweni kwe-ammonia.Ukuba ixabiso le-pH liphezulu kakhulu, ezinye iikhompawundi ze-nitrogen ezine-nitrogen ziya kuguqulwa zibe yi-ammonia.Ukuba ixabiso le-pH liphantsi kakhulu, inxalenye ye-ammonia iya kuhlala emanzini ngexesha lokufudumala kunye ne-distillation.Ukuze ufumane iziphumo ezichanekileyo, isampuli yamanzi kufuneka ilungiswe ukungathathi hlangothi ngaphambi kokuhlalutya.Ukuba isampuli yamanzi i-acidic kakhulu okanye i-alkaline, ixabiso le-pH lingalungiswa lingathathi hlangothi kunye ne-1mol / L isisombululo se-sodium hydroxide okanye i-1mol / L isisombululo se-sulfuric acid.Emva koko yongeza isisombululo se-phosphate buffer ukugcina ixabiso le-pH kwi-7.4, kwaye wenze idistillation.Emva kokufudumeza, i-ammonia iyaphuphuma emanzini kwindawo enegesi.Ngeli xesha, i-0.01 ~ 0.02mol / L i-dilute sulfuric acid (indlela ye-phenol-hypochlorite) okanye i-2% ihlambulule i-boric acid (i-Nessler's reagent method) isetyenziselwa ukuyithatha.
Kwezinye iisampuli zamanzi ezinomxholo omkhulu we-Ca2 +, emva kokufaka isisombululo se-phosphate buffer, i-Ca2 + kunye ne-PO43- ivelise i-Ca3 e-insoluble (PO43-) 2 i-precipitate kwaye ikhulule i-H + kwi-phosphate, ehlisa ixabiso le-pH.Ngokucacileyo, ezinye ii-Ions ezinokugcwala ngephosphate nazo zinokuchaphazela ixabiso le-pH leisampulu zamanzi ngexesha lokutshiselwa kwe-distillation.Ngamanye amazwi, kwisampulu yamanzi enjalo, nokuba ixabiso le-pH lilungelelaniswe ekubeni lingathathi hlangothi kwaye isisombululo se-phosphate buffer songezwa, ixabiso le-pH liseza kuba sezantsi kakhulu kunexabiso elilindelekileyo.Ke ngoko, kwiisampulu zamanzi ezingaziwayo, linganisa ixabiso le-pH kwakhona emva kokukhutshwa kwe-distillation.Ukuba ixabiso le-pH alikho phakathi kwe-7.2 kunye ne-7.6, umthamo wesisombululo se-buffer kufuneka unyuswe.Ngokubanzi, i-10 mL yesisombululo se-phosphate buffer kufuneka ifakwe kwi-250 mg nganye ye-calcium.
24. Ziziphi iimpawu zomgangatho wamanzi ezibonisa umxholo we-phosphorus-containing compounds emanzini?Zihlobene njani?
Iphosphorus yenye yezinto eziyimfuneko ekukhuleni kwezinto eziphilayo zasemanzini.Ininzi ye-phosphorus emanzini ikhona kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo ze-phosphates, kwaye isixa esincinci sikhoyo ngendlela ye-organic phosphorus compounds.I-Phosphates emanzini inokohlulwa ibe ngamacandelo amabini: i-orthophosphate kunye ne-condesed phosphate.I-Orthophosphate ibhekisela kwi-phosphates ekhoyo kwifom ye-PO43-, i-HPO42-, i-H2PO4-, njl., ngelixa i-phosphate edibeneyo iquka i-pyrophosphate kunye ne-metaphosphoric acid.Iityuwa kunye ne-polymeric phosphates, ezifana ne-P2O74-, i-P3O105-, i-HP3O92-, (PO3) 63-, njl. Iikhompawundi ze-Organophosphorus ikakhulu ziquka i-phosphates, i-phosphites, i-pyrophosphates, i-hypophosphites kunye ne-amine phosphates.Isixa se-phosphates kunye ne-organic phosphorus ibizwa ngokuba yi-phosphorus iyonke kwaye ikwasisalathisi esibalulekileyo somgangatho wamanzi.
Indlela yokuhlalutya ye-phosphorus iyonke (jonga i-GB 11893-89 kwiindlela ezithile) inamanyathelo amabini asisiseko.Inyathelo lokuqala kukusebenzisa ii-oxidants ukuguqula iindlela ezahlukeneyo zephosphorus kwisampulu yamanzi zibe yiphosphates.Inyathelo lesibini kukulinganisa i-orthophosphate, kwaye emva koko uguqule Bala umxholo we-phosphorus iyonke.Ngexesha lemisebenzi yokucocwa kogutyulo lwesiqhelo, isiqulatho sephosphate kugutyulo olungena kwisixhobo sokucocwa kwemichiza ephilayo kunye namanzi amdaka etanki yesibini yentlenga kufuneka abekwe iliso kwaye alinganiswe.Ukuba umxholo we-phosphate wamanzi angenayo ayanelanga, umlinganiselo othile we-phosphate fertilizer kufuneka ufakwe ukongeza;ukuba isiqulatho sephosphate kumanzi amdaka etanki yesibini yentlenga ingaphezulu komgangatho wokuqala wesizwe wokukhutshelwa we-0.5mg/L, amanyathelo okususa iphosphorus kufuneka aqwalaselwe.
25. Ngawaphi amanyathelo okuthintela ukumiselwa kwephosphate?
Indlela yokulinganisa i-phosphate kukuba phantsi kweemeko ze-acidic, i-phosphate kunye ne-ammonium molybdate ivelisa i-phosphomolybdenum heteropoly acid, eyancipha ibe yi-blue complex (ebizwa ngokuba yi-molybdenum blue) isebenzisa i-agent yokunciphisa i-stannous chloride okanye i-ascorbic acid.Indlela ye-CJ/T78–1999), ungasebenzisa amafutha e-alkaline ukuvelisa iikhompleksi ezinemibala emininzi yokulinganisa ngokuthe ngqo kwe-spectrophotometric.
Iisampulu zamanzi eziqulethe i-phosphorus azinzanga kwaye zihlalutywa ngcono ngokukhawuleza emva kokuqokelela.Ukuba uhlalutyo alukwazi ukwenziwa ngokukhawuleza, yongeza i-40 mg mercury chloride okanye i-1 mL egxininisiweyo ye-sulfuric acid kwilitha nganye yesampuli yamanzi ukuze igcinwe, kwaye uyigcine kwibhotile yeglasi emdaka kwaye uyibeke kwifriji ye-4oC.Ukuba isampuli yamanzi isetyenziselwa kuphela uhlalutyo lwe-phosphorus iyonke, akukho nyango lokulondoloza olufunekayo.
Kuba iphosphate inokubhengezwa kwiindonga zeebhotile zeplastiki, iibhotile zeplastiki azinakusetyenziswa ukugcina iisampulu zamanzi.Zonke iibhotile zeglasi ezisetyenzisiweyo kufuneka zihlanjululwe nge-dilute eshushu ye-hydrochloric acid okanye i-dilute nitric acid, kwaye ihlanjululwe ngamaxesha amaninzi ngamanzi adibeneyo.
26. Zeziphi izikhombisi ezahlukeneyo ezibonisa umxholo wento eqinileyo emanzini?
Izinto eziqinileyo kugutyulo ziquka izinto ezidadayo kumphezulu wamanzi, into ejingayo emanzini, intlenga etshona ezantsi kunye nento eqinileyo enyityilikiswa emanzini.Izinto ezidadayo ziingceba ezinkulu okanye amasuntswana amakhulu okungcola adada phezu kwamanzi kwaye anoxinano olungaphantsi kwamanzi.Into enqunyanyisiweyo ngamasuntswana okungcola axhonywe emanzini.Izinto ezinentlenga (Sedimentable matter) bubumdaka obunokuthi buhlale emazantsi omzimba wamanzi emva kwexesha elithile.Phantse lonke ugutyulo luqulathe izinto ezidityanisiweyo ezinokwakheka okuntsokothileyo.Intlengeka into edityaniswe ikakhulu yindalo ephilayo ibizwa ngokuba ludaka, kwaye intlenga into edityaniswe ikakhulu yi-inorganic matter ibizwa ngokuba yintsalela.Izinto ezidadayo ngokuqhelekileyo kunzima ukuzilinganisa, kodwa ezinye izinto ezininzi eziqinileyo zinokulinganiswa kusetyenziswa ezi zalathisi zilandelayo.
Isalathisi esibonisa isiqulatho esisiqilima sisonke emanzini sisiqina esipheleleyo, okanye izinto eziqinileyo zizonke.Ngokokunyibilika kwezinto eziqinileyo emanzini, izinto eziqinileyo zizonke zinokwahlulwa zibe ziziqina ezinyibilikisiweyo (Dissolved Solid, ishunqulelwe njenge-DS) kunye nezinto eziqinileyo ezinqunyanyisiweyo (Suspend Solid, efinyeziweyo njenge-SS).Ngokweempawu eziguquguqukayo zezinto eziqinileyo emanzini, izinto eziqinileyo zizonke zinokwahlulwa zibe yiziqina eziguquguqukayo (VS) kunye nezinto eziqinileyo (FS, ezikwabizwa ngokuba luthuthu).Phakathi kwazo, izinto eziqinileyo ezinyibilikisiweyo (DS) kunye nezinto eziqinileyo ezinqunyanyisiweyo (SS) zinokuphinda zahlulwe zibe ziziqina ezinyibilikayo ezingaguquguqukiyo ezinyibilikisiweyo, izinto eziqinileyo ezinqunyanyisiweyo ezingaguquguqukiyo kunye nezinye izikhombisi.
Ixesha lokuposa: Sep-28-2023
